c. 520 BC \u2013 Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries and discovered the optic nerve.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 450 BC \u2013 Sushruta wrote the Sushruta Samhita, redacted versions of which, by the third century AD, describe over 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, classify human surgery into eight categories, and introduce cosmetic surgery.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 450 BC \u2013 Xenophanes examined fossils and speculated on the evolution of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 380 BC \u2013 Diocles wrote the oldest known anatomy book and was the first to use the term anatomy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 350 BC \u2013 Aristotle attempted a comprehensive classification of animals. His written works include Historion Animalium, a general biology of animals, De Partibus Animalium, a comparative anatomy and physiology of animals, and De Generatione Animalium, on developmental biology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 300 BC \u2013 Theophrastos (or Theophrastus) began the systematic study of botany.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 300 BC \u2013 Herophilos dissected the human body.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 50\u201370 AD \u2013 Historia Naturalis by Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) was published in 37 volumes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
130\u2013200 \u2013 Claudius Galen wrote numerous treatises on human anatomy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
c. 1010 \u2013 Avicenna (Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina) published The Canon of Medicine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1543 \u2013 Andreas Vesalius publishes the anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
?? \u2013 Jan Baptist van Helmont performed his famous tree plant experiment in which he shows that the substance of a plant derives from water, a forerunner of the discovery of photosynthesis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1628 \u2013 William Harvey published An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1651 \u2013 William Harvey concluded that all animals, including mammals, develop from eggs, and spontaneous generation of any animal from mud or excrement was an impossibility.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1665 \u2013 Robert Hooke saw cells in cork using a microscope.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In 1661, 1664 and 1665, the blood cells were discerned by Marcello Malpighi. In 1678, the red blood corpuscles was described by Jan Swammerdam of Amsterdam, a Dutch naturalist and physician. The first complete account of the red cells was made by Anthony van Leeuwenhoek of Delft in the last quarter of the 17th century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1668 \u2013 Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation by showing that fly maggots only appear on pieces of meat in jars if the jars are open to the air. Jars covered with cheesecloth contained no flies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1672 \u2013 Marcello Malpighi published the first description of chick development, including the formation of muscle somites, circulation, and nervous system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1676 \u2013 Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed protozoa and calls them animalcules.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1677 \u2013 Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed spermatozoa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1683 \u2013 Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria. Leeuwenhoek's discoveries renew the question of spontaneous generation in microorganisms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1767 \u2013 Kaspar Friedrich Wolff argued that the tissues of a developing chick form from nothing and are not simply elaborations of already-present structures in the egg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1768 \u2013 Lazzaro Spallanzani again disproved spontaneous generation by showing that no organisms grow in a rich broth if it is first heated (to kill any organisms) and allowed to cool in a stoppered flask. He also showed that fertilization in mammals requires an egg and semen.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1771 \u2013 Joseph Priestley demonstrated that plants produce a gas that animals and flames consume. This gas was oxygen.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1798 \u2013 Thomas Malthus discussed human population growth and food production in An Essay on the Principle of Population.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1801 \u2013 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck began the detailed study of invertebrate taxonomy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1802 \u2013 The term biology in its modern sense was propounded independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur) and Lamarck (Hydrog\u00e9ologie). The word was coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1809 \u2013 Lamarck proposed a modern theory of evolution based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1817 \u2013 Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaim\u00e9 Caventou isolated chlorophyll.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1820 \u2013 Christian Friedrich Nasse formulated Nasse's law: hemophilia occurs only in males and is passed on by unaffected females.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1824 \u2013 J. L. Prevost and J. B. Dumas showed that the sperm in semen were not parasites, as previously thought, but, instead, the agents of fertilization.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1826 \u2013 Karl von Baer showed that the eggs of mammals are in the ovaries, ending a 200-year search for the mammalian egg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1828 \u2013 Friedrich Woehler synthesized urea; first synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic starting materials.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1836 \u2013 Theodor Schwann discovered pepsin in extracts from the stomach lining; first isolation of an animal enzyme.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1837 \u2013 Theodor Schwann showed that heating air will prevent it from causing putrefaction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1838 \u2013 Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are composed of cells.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1839 \u2013 Theodor Schwann proposed that all animal tissues are composed of cells. Schwann and Schleinden argued that cells are the elementary particles of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1843 \u2013 Martin Barry reported the fusion of a sperm and an egg for rabbits in a 1-page paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1856 \u2013 Louis Pasteur stated that microorganisms produce fermentation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1858 \u2013 Charles R. Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently proposed a theory of biological evolution (\"descent through modification\") by means of natural selection. Only in later editions of his works did Darwin used the term \"evolution.\"<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1858 \u2013 Rudolf Virchow proposed that cells can only arise from pre-existing cells; \"Omnis cellula e celulla,\" all cell from cells. The Cell Theory states that all organisms are composed of cells (Schleiden and Schwann), and cells can only come from other cells (Virchow).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1864 \u2013 Louis Pasteur disproved the spontaneous generation of cellular life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1865 \u2013 Gregor Mendel demonstrated in pea plants that inheritance follows definite rules. The Principle of Segregation states that each organism has two genes per trait, which segregate when the organism makes eggs or sperm. The Principle of Independent Assortment states that each gene in a pair is distributed independently during the formation of eggs or sperm. Mendel's trailblazing foundation for the science of genetics went unnoticed, to his lasting disappointment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1865 \u2013 Friedrich August Kekul\u00e9 von Stradonitz realized that benzene is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a hexagonal ring.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1869 \u2013 Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic acids in the nuclei of cells.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1874 \u2013 Jacobus van 't Hoff and Joseph-Achille Le Bel advanced a three-dimensional stereochemical representation of organic molecules and propose a tetrahedral carbon atom.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1876 \u2013 Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently described (in sea urchin eggs) the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1884 \u2013 Emil Fischer began his detailed analysis of the compositions and structures of sugars.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1892 \u2013 Hans Driesch separated the individual cells of a 2-cell sea urchin embryo and shows that each cell develops into a complete individual, thus disproving the theory of preformation and showing that each cell is \"totipotent,\" containing all the hereditary information necessary to form an individual.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1898 \u2013 Martinus Beijerinck used filtering experiments to show that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by something smaller than a bacterium, which he names a virus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1900 \u2013 Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak independently rediscovered Mendel's paper on heredity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1902 \u2013 Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri, independently proposed that the chromosomes carry the hereditary information.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1905 \u2013 William Bateson coined the term \"genetics\" to describe the study of biological inheritance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1906 \u2013 Mikhail Tsvet discovered the chromatography technique for organic compound separation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1907 \u2013 Ivan Pavlov demonstrated conditioned responses with salivating dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1907 \u2013 Hermann Emil Fischer artificially synthesized peptide amino acid chains and thereby shows that amino acids in proteins are connected by amino group-acid group bonds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1909 \u2013 Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word \"gene.\"<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1911 \u2013 Thomas Hunt Morgan proposed that genes are arranged in a line on the chromosomes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1922 \u2013 Aleksandr Oparin proposed that the Earth's early atmosphere contained methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor, and that these were the raw materials for the origin of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1926 \u2013 James B. Sumner showed that the urease enzyme is a protein.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1928 \u2013 Otto Diels and Kurt Alder discovered the Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction for forming ring molecules.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1928 \u2013 Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1929 \u2013 Phoebus Levene discovered the sugar deoxyribose in nucleic acids.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1929 \u2013 Edward Doisy and Adolf Butenandt independently discovered estrone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1930 \u2013 John Howard Northrop showed that the pepsin enzyme is a protein.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1931 \u2013 Adolf Butenandt discovered androsterone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1932 \u2013 Hans Adolf Krebs discovered the urea cycle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1933 \u2013 Tadeus Reichstein artificially synthesized vitamin C; first vitamin synthesis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1935 \u2013 Rudolf Schoenheimer used deuterium as a tracer to examine the fat storage system of rats.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1935 \u2013 Wendell Stanley crystallized the tobacco mosaic virus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1935 \u2013 Konrad Lorenz described the imprinting behavior of young birds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1937 \u2013 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovered the three-dimensional structure of cholesterol.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1937 \u2013 Hans Adolf Krebs discovered the tricarboxylic acid cycle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1937 \u2013 In Genetics and the Origin of Species, Theodosius Dobzhansky applies the chromosome theory and population genetics to natural populations in the first mature work of neo-Darwinism, also called the modern synthesis, a term coined by Julian Huxley.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1938 \u2013 Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer discovered a living coelacanth off the coast of southern Africa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1940 \u2013 Donald Griffin and Robert Galambos announced their discovery of echolocation by bats.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1942 \u2013 Max Delbr\u00fcck and Salvador Luria demonstrated that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1944 \u2013 Oswald Avery shows that DNA carried the hereditary information in pneumococcus bacteria.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1944 \u2013 Robert Burns Woodward and William von Eggers Doering synthesized quinine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1945 \u2013 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovered the three-dimensional structure of penicillin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1948 \u2013 Erwin Chargaff showed that in DNA the number of guanine units equals the number of cytosine units and the number of adenine units equals the number of thymine units.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1951 \u2013 The research group of Robert Robinson with John Cornforth (Oxford University) publishes their synthesis of cholesterol, while Robert Woodward (Harvard University) publishes his synthesis of cortisone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1951 \u2013 Fred Sanger, Hans Tuppy, and Ted Thompson completed their chromatographic analysis of the insulin amino acid sequence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1952 \u2013 American developmental biologists Robert Briggs and Thomas King cloned the first vertebrate by transplanting nuclei from leopard frogs embryos into enucleated eggs. More differentiated cells were the less able they are to direct development in the enucleated egg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1952 \u2013 Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed that DNA is the genetic material in bacteriophage viruses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1952 \u2013 Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA is a double helix with a diameter of 2 nm and the sugar-phosphate backbones on the outside of the helix, based on x ray diffraction studies. She suspected the two sugar-phosphate backbones have a peculiar relationship to each other.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1953 \u2013 After examining Franklin's unpublished data, James D. Watson and Francis Crick published a double-helix structure for DNA, with one sugar-phosphate backbone running in the opposite direction to the other. They further suggested a mechanism by which the molecule can replicate itself and serve to transmit genetic information. Their paper, combined with the Hershey-Chase experiment and Chargaff's data on nucleotides, finally persuaded biologists that DNA is the genetic material, not protein.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1953 \u2013 Stanley Miller showed that amino acids can be formed when simulated lightning is passed through vessels containing water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1954 \u2013 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovered the three-dimensional structure of vitamin B12.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1955 \u2013 Marianne Grunberg-Manago and Severo Ochoa discovered the first nucleic-acid-synthesizing enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase), which links nucleotides together into polynucleotides.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1955 \u2013 Arthur Kornberg discovered DNA polymerase enzymes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1958 \u2013 John Gurdon used nuclear transplantation to clone an African Clawed Frog; first cloning of a vertebrate using a nucleus from a fully differentiated adult cell.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1958 \u2013 Matthew Stanley Meselson and Franklin W. Stahl proved that DNA replication is semiconservative in the Meselson-Stahl experiment<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1959 \u2013 Max Perutz comes up with a model for the structure of oxygenated hemoglobin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1959 \u2013 Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg received the Nobel Prize for their work.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1960 \u2013 John Kendrew described the structure of myoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in muscle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1960 \u2013 Four separate researchers (S. Weiss, J. Hurwitz, Audrey Stevens and J. Bonner) discovered bacterial RNA polymerase, which polymerizes nucleotides under the direction of DNA.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1960 \u2013 Robert Woodward synthesized chlorophyll.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1961 \u2013 J. Heinrich Matthaei cracked the first codon of the genetic code (the codon for the amino acid phenylalanine) using Grunberg-Manago's 1955 enzyme system for making polynucleotides.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1961 \u2013 Joan Or\u00f3 found that concentrated solutions of ammonium cyanide in water can produce the nucleotide adenine, a discovery that opened the way for theories on the origin of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1962 \u2013 Max Perutz and John Kendrew shared the Nobel prize for their work on the structure of hemoglobin and myoglobin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1966 \u2013 Genetic code fully cracked through trial-and-error experimental work.[1]<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1966 \u2013 Kimishige Ishizaka discovered a new type of immunoglobulin, IgE, that develops allergy and explains the mechanisms of allergy at molecular and cellular levels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1966 \u2013 Lynn Margulis proposed the endosymbiotic theory, that the eukaryotic cell is a symbiotic union of primitive prokaryotic cells. Richard Dawkins called the theory \"one of the great achievements of twentieth-century evolutionary biology.\"<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1968 \u2013 Fred Sanger used radioactive phosphorus as a tracer to chromatographically decipher a 120 base long RNA sequence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1969 \u2013 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin deciphered the three-dimensional structure of insulin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1970 \u2013 Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans discovered DNA restriction enzymes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1970 \u2013 Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discovered reverse transcriptase enzymes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1972 \u2013 Albert Eschenmoser and Robert Woodward synthesized vitamin B12.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1972 \u2013 Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed an idea they call \"punctuated equilibrium\", which states that the fossil record is an accurate depiction of the pace of evolution, with long periods of \"stasis\" (little change) punctuated by brief periods of rapid change and species formation (within a lineage).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1972 \u2013 Seymour Jonathan Singer and Garth L. Nicholson developed the fluid mosaic model, which deals with the make-up of the membrane of all cells.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1974 \u2013 Manfred Eigen and Manfred Sumper showed that mixtures of nucleotide monomers and RNA replicase will give rise to RNA molecules which replicate, mutate, and evolve.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1974 \u2013 Leslie Orgel showed that RNA can replicate without RNA-replicase and that zinc aids this replication.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1977 \u2013 John Corliss and ten coauthors discovered chemosynthetically based animal communities located around submarine hydrothermal vents on the Galapagos Rift.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1977 \u2013 Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam present a rapid DNA sequencing technique which uses cloning, base destroying chemicals, and gel electrophoresis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1977 \u2013 Frederick Sanger and Alan Coulson presented a rapid gene sequencing technique which uses dideoxynucleotides and gel electrophoresis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1978 \u2013 Frederick Sanger presented the 5,386 base sequence for the virus PhiX174; first sequencing of an entire genome.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1982 \u2013 Stanley B. Prusiner proposed the existence of infectious proteins, or prions. His idea is widely derided in the scientific community, but he wins a Nobel Prize in 1997.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1983 \u2013 Kary Mullis invented \"PCR\" ( polymerase chain reaction), an automated method for rapidly copying sequences of DNA.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1984 \u2013 Alec Jeffreys devised a genetic fingerprinting method.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1985 \u2013 Harry Kroto, J.R. Heath, S.C. O'Brien, R.F. Curl, and Richard Smalley discovered the unusual stability of the buckminsterfullerene molecule and deduce its structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1986 \u2013 Alexander Klibanov demonstrated that enzymes can function in non-aqueous environments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1986 \u2013 Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Nerve growth factor (NGF).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1990 \u2013 French Anderson et al. performed the first approved gene therapy on a human patient<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1990 \u2013 Napoli, Lemieux and Jorgensen discovered RNA interference (1990) during experiments aimed at the color of petunias.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1990 \u2013 Wolfgang Kr\u00e4tschmer, Lowell Lamb, Konstantinos Fostiropoulos, and Donald Huffman discovered that Buckminsterfullerene can be separated from soot because it is soluble in benzene.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1995 \u2013 Publication of the first complete genome of a free-living organism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1996 \u2013 Dolly the sheep was first clone of an adult mammal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1998 \u2013 Mello and Fire publish their work on RNAi in c.elegans, for which they shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1999 \u2013 Researchers at the Institute for Human Gene Therapy at the University of Pennsylvania accidentally kill Jesse Gelsinger during a clinical trial of a gene therapy technique, leading the FDA to halt further gene therapy trials at the institute.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2001 \u2013 Publication of the first drafts of the complete human genome (see Craig Venter).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2002 \u2013 First virus produced 'from scratch', an artificial polio virus that paralyzes and kills mice.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2007 \u2013 Commercialization of Illumina Next generation Sequencing tools. This has become the most popular high-throughput sequencing system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2012 \u2013 Use of CRISPR-Cas9 as a DNA-editing biotechnology tool.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Timeline of biology and organic chemistry<\/a>, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Before 1600 c. 520 BC \u2013 Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries and discovered the optic nerve. c. 450 BC \u2013 Sushruta wrote the Sushruta Samhita, redacted versions of which, by the third century AD, describe over 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, classify human surgery into eight categories, and introduce cosmetic surgery. […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[3],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/24"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=24"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/24\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":32,"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/24\/revisions\/32"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=24"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=24"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.robotinyou.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=24"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}